Institutional Patterns of Diversity and Inclusion Across European Organisations and Regions
Keywords:
diversity; inclusion; organisational policy; institutional patterns; Europe; Four Layers of Diversity Model.Abstract
This paper examines institutional patterns of diversity and inclusion (D&I) in European organisations, emphasising cross-regional and cross-sectoral variations. Building on the theoretical framework of the Four Layers of Diversity Model (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003), the research investigates how organisations define their D&I priorities, and which employee groups are most frequently recognised as central to inclusive strategies. The study applies a quantitative content analysis of 76 publicly available organisational documents, such as sustainability reports, diversity policies, and codes of ethics, from 27 European countries, classified into six macro-regions. This methodological approach enabled a comparative evaluation of institutional maturity and thematic priorities within organisational D&I frameworks. Findings reveal pronounced regional differences. Anglo-Saxon countries demonstrate the most developed and balanced institutional frameworks, integrating gender, disability, and identity dimensions within comprehensive D&I strategies. In contrast, South-Eastern and Central-Eastern Europe display the lowest degree of formalisation and a predominantly declarative approach. Across the entire sample, three employee groups, namely women, persons with disabilities, and LGBTQ+ communities, emerge as the most frequently prioritised, whereas parents, older workers, and socio-economically disadvantaged groups are consistently underrepresented. The analysis further indicates that European organisations primarily address the internal dimensions of diversity (gender, age, ethnicity, disability), while external and organisational dimensions, related to power relations, social status, and access to resources, receive limited attention. This imbalance suggests that inclusion is still understood mainly as an individual rather than a structural issue. The paper concludes that to achieve genuine inclusion, European organisations must move beyond regulatory compliance and adopt an intersectional, system-level approach that embeds equality, participation, and social justice into their institutional cultures.References
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Li, N. (2013). The theory of purposeful work behavior: The role of personality, higher‐order goals, and job characteristics. Academy of Management Review, 38(1), 132–153. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2010.0479
Bay, J., & Walwema, J. (2025). A history of DEI: How regulatory and compliance rhetorics influence organizations. Technical Communication Quarterly, 34(4), 405–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/10572252.2025.2508710
Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
Blommaert, L., & Coenders, M. (2024). Understanding public support for workplace diversity and antidiscrimination policies in Europe. Frontiers in Sociology, 9, Article 1256751. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1256751
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2017). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America (5th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood.
Cox, T., Jr. (1991). The multicultural organization. Academy of Management Perspectives, 5(2), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1991.4274675
Cox, T. H., & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Executive, 5(3), 45–56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4165021
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Harvard Business Press.
Ely, R. J., & Meyerson, D. E. (2000). Theories of gender in organizations: A new approach to organizational analysis and change. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 103–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(00)22004-2
Ely, R. J., & Thomas, D. A. (2001). Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(2), 229–273. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667087
European Commission. (2020). A Union of Equality: EU Anti-Racism Action Plan 2020–2025 (COM/2020/565 final). https://shorturl.at/NvrTT
European Union. (2000a). Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin. Official Journal of the European Communities. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0043
European Union. (2000b). Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation. Official Journal of the European Communities. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0078
Gardenswartz, L., & Rowe, A. (2003). Diverse teams at work: Capitalizing on the power of diversity. Society for Human Resource Management.
Groglopo, A., Ahmadi, F., & Munobwa, J. S. (2023). Structural racism in Sweden: Framing attitudes towards immigrants through the diversity barometer study (2005–2022). Social sciences, 12(7), Article 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12070421
Hamermesh, D. S., & Biddle, J. E. (1994). Beauty and the labor market. American Economic Association, 84(5), 1174–1194.
Hogan, J., & Holland, B. (2003). Using theory to evaluate personality and job‐performance relations: A socioanalytic perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.100
Jansen, W. S., Toorn, J. v. d., Bokern, Y. N. A., & Ellemers, N. (2024). Shades of support: An empirical assessment of D&I policy support in organizations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 54(4), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.13025
Koç, D. E., Solanas, J., Dağıstan, S. Y., & Arici, H. E. (2025). Diversity, equity, and inclusion in the hospitality and tourism workplace: A quantitative systematic literature review. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 128, Article 104171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2025.104171
Köllen, T. (2021). Diversity management: A critical review and agenda for the future. Journal of Management Inquiry, 30(3), 259–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492619868025
Lauderdale, T. (2023). The survey of employee engagement: The history and the future. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 26(1), 40–45.
Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership, or how to succeed in business without being one of the boys. Times Books.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). The five‐factor theory of personality. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and Research (3rd ed., pp. 159–181). Guilford Press.
Mor Barak, M. E. (2015). Inclusion is the key to diversity management, but what is inclusion? Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 39(2), 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2015.1035599
Neuendorf, K. A. (2016). The content analysis guidebook (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Nishii, L. H. (2013). The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. Academy of Management Journal, 56(6), 1754–1774. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0823
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, Article n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Rhode, D. L. (2010). The beauty bias: The injustice of appearance in life and law. Oxford University Press.
Roberson, Q. M. (2019). Diversity in the workplace: A review, synthesis, and future research agenda. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 6, 69–88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015243
Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over‐represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16(2), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00433.x
Saeys, A., Van Puymbroeck, N., Albeda, Y., Oosterlynck, S., & Verschraegen, G. (2019). From multicultural to diversity policies: Tracing the demise of group representation and recognition in a local urban context. European Urban and Regional Studies, 26(3), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969776419854503
Schreier, M. (2012). Qualitative content analysis in practice. SAGE Publications.
Shore, L. M., & Chung, B. G. (2024). Inclusion as a multi-level concept. Current Opinion in Psychology, 60, Article 101910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101910
Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Holcombe Ehrhart, K., & Singh, G. (2010). Inclusion and Diversity in Work Groups: A Review and Model for Future Research. Journal of Management, 37(4), 1262-1289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310385943
Sundermeier, J., & Mahlert, N. (2023). Entrepreneurial team diversity – A systematic review and research agenda. European Management Journal, 41(6), 972-984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2022.10.010
Topalović, A. (2024). Kritička teorija kao okvir za razumijevanje organizacijske kulture: Kako inkluzivna organizacijska kultura potiče inovativnost? [Critical theory as a framework for understanding organizational culture: How does an inclusive organizational culture foster innovation?] Zbornik radova Odsjeka za pedagogiju „Ka novim iskoracima u odgoju i obrazovanju”, 5(5), 96-115. Univerzitet u Sarajevu – Filozofski fakultet.
Verwijs, C., & Russo, D. (2023). The double-edged sword of diversity: How diversity, conflict, and psychological safety impact software teams. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.12954
Weida, K. (2025, September 27). Disability. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/disability
Wrench, J. (2007). The background to diversity management in Europe. In J. Wrench (Ed.), Diversity management and discrimination: Immigrants and ethnic minorities in the EU (pp. 17–40). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315577722-3
Zhao, K., Hsieh, W., Faulkner, N., & Smith, L. (2025). A systematic meta-review of organizational diversity and inclusion interventions and their associated outcomes. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 44(9), 53-71. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-02-2024-0085
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Antonio TOPALOVIĆ
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license, the users are free to share (copy, distribute and transmit the contribution) with the condition to attribute the contribution in the manner specified by the author or licensor. They may not alter, transform, or build upon this work.
